WORLD HISTORY: Looking at CULTURE during the Middle Ages

CULTURE DURING MEDIEVAL SOCIETY

This reading is adapted slightly from our textbook, "WORLD HISTORY" by Jackson J. Spielvogel, published by Glencoe.

 

Cathedrals

We know that during the Middle Ages, religion (particularly Christianity) greatly influenced society. Because Christians needed a place to meet for worship, Europe saw a great rise in churches and cathedrals being constructed across the continent. With a rise in church building, the middle ages saw great advancements in ARCHITECTURE-- especially during the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

 

The cathedrals that were constructed and built during medieval society were built ROMANESQUE style, which meant that they were built in the BASILICA shape used in the construction of church in the late Roman Empire. Basilicas were rectangular buildings that had flat, wooden roofs. Romanesque builders then placed a long, round stone arched vault on top of the wooden roof. Many times the vaults were in the shape of a cross so that the inside of the church could be shaped in that way.

 

The stone roofs were extremely heavy, which meant that Romanesque churches needed massive pillars and walls to hold them up. This mean that there was very little space left for windows in the church, leaving the insides of churches very dark inside.

 

A new style of building, called GOTHIC architecture, appeared later in the twelfth century and was developed even further in the thirteenth century. Gothic cathedrals still remain one of the greatest artistic accomplishments of the Middle Ages. There were two major innovations (or accomplishments):

 

INNOVATION #1:	INNOVATION #2:
Architects replaced the round barrel vaults of Romanesque churches with pointed arches… which allowed builders to make Gothic churches higher than Romanesque churches	The flying buttress was added to Gothic churches. This was a heavy, arched support of stone built onto the outside of church walls. Flying buttresses made it possible to distribute the weight of the church’s ceilings up and down

Gothic cathedrals also had stained glass windows added, which depicted both religious scenes and scenes from daily life. The colored glass also allowed for displays of colored light to enter into the cathedral through sunlight.

The St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague shows examples of Gothic architecture with the pointed arches extending into the sky. Below, you can see into the Cathedral where stained glass windows are present, paintings are drawn on the walls of the church, and the arches that show where the flying buttresses are located.

 

 

Universities

Universities are a direct product of the Middle Ages. The word university comes from the Latin word universitas which means "corporation."

 

The first European university appeared in Bologna, Italy. Students (only men) traveled from all over Europe to learn law. Later, the University of Paris became the first university in northern Europe. Many students AND masters (another word for teachers) left the University of Paris to start their own new university at Oxford, England, which is still in existence today. Kings, popes, and princes thought it was very honorable to help found and start universities. By the year 1500, there were more than 80 universities spread all across Europe.

 

Once students entered a university, they participated in studying a wide variety of topics, including:

-Grammar

-Logic

-Arithmetic

-Geometry

-Music

-Astronomy

 

One of the most highly valued subjects in universities was THEOLOGY- which is the study of religion and God. Theology was very strongly influenced by a system known as SCHOLASTICISM- which tried to bring together both faith and reason, showing that they can exist together.

 

One of the most famous men to attempt to bring faith and reason together was Thomas Aquinas.

 

Thomas Aquinas was a well known Christian author and priest who would ask challenging questions of his readers, such as "Does God really exist?"

 

Aquinas always questioned the relationship between reason and faith, which was very unheard of for these times. Although his ideas were not always accepted, he is now regarded as one of the most well known theological scholars of the Middle Ages.

 

Vernacular Literature

In Medieval society, Latin was the common language of civilization. It was used widely in the church and in schools, which later allowed people to communicate almost everywhere in Europe.

 

By the twelfth century, a new type of literature written in the VERNACULAR was started. Vernacular refers to the language of everyday speech in a particular region (such as Spanish in Spain, English in England, German in Germany, etc.). There were two popular forms of vernacular literature that appeared during the Middle Ages:

TROUBADOUR POETRY	CHANSON DE GESTE (Heroic Epic)
Mostly written about nobles and knights… Most poems were about a knight’s love for a lady, which inspires him to be as brave as possible and also a better poet	A heroic epic tells the story of knights and warriors usually traveling on a brave and courageous journey. They were very common to read during Medieval Society.

 

CONCLUSION

Today we learned that culture was very heavily influenced by three themes:

 

1. Architecture- the appearance of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals made a huge impact on advancements in Medieval Society, and showed the importance of the church during the middle ages.

 

2. Universities- Universities were a product of the Middle Ages and influenced studies in Theology, which looked at faith and reason.

 

3. Vernacular Literature- influenced by the development of individual languages, literature such as poetry and epics increased in popularity during Medieval Society.

 

 

 



Looking at relationships with other countries: Spain, Canada, and other European Nations

Dealing with Other Nations

This article is adapted from our classrooom textbook, AMERICA: History of our Nation by Davidson and Stoff (Prentice Hall). 

Key Terms and People for the reading:

-CEDED: to give up

-MIGUEL HIDALGO: a Mexican priest who organized an army of Native Americans in a revolt against Spain

-SIMON BOLIVAR: A leader best known for the struggle for independence from Spain

-JAMES MONROE: President during the Latin American conflicts

-JOHN QUINCY ADAMS: Secretary of State (like Monroe’s right hand man)

-SELF-GOVERNMENT: the right of people to rule themselves independently

By the year 1815, we had a new president (James Monroe) and were beginning to take firm positions in challenging European influences in both North and South America.

Relations with Spain

At the time of the War of 1812, the United States and Haiti were the only parts of the Americas that were not under European control. Spain controlled more territory in the Americas than any other European country, however, Spain’s power greatly weakened over the course of several hundred years.

Spain’s control was especially weak in Florida (not yet a part of the U.S.). Spain was having trouble stopping enslaved African Americans from escaping plantations in both Georgia and Alabama and crossing into Florida. Once they arrived in Florida, many of the escaped slaves joined the Seminole Nation (a group of Native Americans) who often crossed over into the United States to raid different American settlements.

In 1817, the U.S. government sent Andrew Jackson to recapture the African Americans who had escaped slavery. Jackson attacked and destroyed Seminole villages and went far beyond his orders. He seized two very important Spanish towns in Florida and forced the governor of Florida to flee the territory.

By attacking Florida, Jackson showed not only that the U.S. could take over Florida, but also that Spain could not protect it. Because of these two factors, Spain decided to give up the territory in the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819. Spain therefore ceded Florida to the United States.

Spanish Colonies Win Independence

While the U.S. successfully gained control over Florida from Spain, opposition to Spanish rule was growing in Spain’s American colonies. The American Revolution had inspired Latin Americans to want control over their own affairs (Spain had controlled many Latin American territories up to this point). Spain seemed to be unable to control the pressure for change in Latin America as more colonies were starting revolutionary movements.

The picture above shows territories controlled by Spain during the 1800’s prior to the Louisiana Purchase.

One of the most famous examples of Revolution against Spain is Mexico. The struggle for Mexican independence began in 1810 with Father Michael Hidalgo organizing an army of Native Americans that freed several Mexican provinces (territories). In 1811, Hidalgo was captured and executed by troops loyal to Spain.

Another Revolution broke out in Mexico in 1820. Spain was unable to end the fighting this time around, and they agreed to Mexico’s independence in 1821.

Mexico was ruled by an emperor first, but eventually, in 1823, the monarchy was overthrown. A new constitution was written for Mexico (they borrowed many ideas from the U.S. constitution) and eventually, Mexico was made into a republic consisting of nineteen states and four territories.

South and Central America Independence

South America was another region affected by revolutionary changes. One of the most well-known leaders of the struggle for independence from Spain in South America was Simon Bolivar. His nickname, “The Liberator”, refers to his role in leading independence movements in the northern part of South America. In August of 1819, he led an army from Venezuela into Colombia, where he defeated the Spanish and became the president of the territory of Colombia. His territory included other nations such as Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama (all formerly controlled by Spain).

In the north of Central America, citizens declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Two year later, they formed the United Provinces of Central America which included Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala.

By 1822, Brazil announced its independence from the nation of Portugal. Eventually by 1825, most parts of Latin America had thrown off European rule.

The Monroe Doctrine

Spain and other European nations were very upset over losing control of Latin American countries. Many European countries such as France and Russia began to declare that they might help Spain try to regain control of its former territories.

 

^^James Monroe is pictured on top, while John Quincy Adams is pictured on the bottom^^

This worried President James Monroe and his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. The British also grew worried, because both nations wanted to protect trade with Latin American countries. In 1823, Britain suggested that the two countries should issue a joint statement together, announcing their pledge to protect the freedom of the new nations of Latin America. Adams informed Monroe that issuing a joint statement with the British would make the U.S. look like a “junior partner” to other nations… So Monroe issued a statement alone.

James Monroe issued what is called the Monroe Doctrine in December of 1823. The Monroe Doctrine stated that the U.S. would not allow European nations to create American colonies or interfere with the now-free nations of Latin America. The United States would consider any attempt to do so “dangerous to our peace and safety.”

The Monroe Doctrine boosted the influence of the United States in the region and gave fair warning to European nations against reestablishing colonies in Latin America. Gradually, the U.S. was establishing itself as an even greater power and nation.

Relations with Canada

Canada was still a British colony after the American Revolution, and was now divided into two parts. Upper Canada was mainly British, while Lower Canada was mainly French. In the mid-1800’s, there were rebellions against the British in both parts of Canada.

Even though the British succeeded and maintained control after both rebellions, they learned an important lesson: They could no longer deny rights to Canadians. Britain would have to give Canadians more powers of self-government… and the Act of Union of 1841 was a large step in that direction. It joined the two parts of Canada together, and established a joint Canadian government, although Britain still had the ultimate control over the nation.

The relationship between the U.S. and Canada and Canada was still tense… particularly because the U.S. unsuccessfully tried to invade Canada in the War of 1812.

Slowly, the situation between the two improved after the war. Canada and the U.S. eventually established excellent relations with one another because the U.S. and Britain worked hard to settle land disputes after the war. The relationship between the two still remains strong to this day.

Conclusion

The Monroe Doctrine convinced Americans that U.S. southern borders were safe from European expansion. Treaties with Britain lessened the tensions with Canada, and with a new sense of confidence, Americans were on their way to making even more progress in expanding and developing the nation.

The War of 1812

This article is adapted from our classrooom textbook, AMERICA: History of our Nation by Davidson and Stoff (Prentice Hall). 

Previously, we learned about how Thomas Jefferson hoped to avoid war with the French by negotiating the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. By the year 1809, James Madison had been elected President of the United States and tensions had once again become high with another country... this time, GREAT BRITAIN.

The Americans were angry at Britain for arming Native Americans in the Northwestern parts of the country. In addition, American sailors were being imprisoned by the British overseas, which furthur upset citizens back home.

Most American's felt that the country's honor was in jeapordy and began to feel a new sense of American NATIONALISM- which means to have pride in one's country. In the year 1810, two strong American nationalist's, Henry Clay (from Kentucky) and John C. Calhoun (from South Carolina) became leaders in the House of Representatives.

Henry Clay, one of the War Hawks

Clay and Calhoun and their supporters were called WAR HAWKS- those who were eager for a war with Britain. New England had the strongest opposition to war. They felt that going to war with the British would harm American trade.

Relationships with the British got worse by the year 1812. In the spring, the British told the U.S. that they would continue to imprison sailors, and Native Americans in the Northwest (who, remember, got their weapons from the British), were attacking new settlements. In June of 1812, Congress declared war on Great Britain.

Early Days of the War

The British were already at war in Europe, so the War of 1812 did not come at a good time. Still, the British were not willing to meet American demands for avoiding war. Providing Native Americans with support helped the British to protect Canada from American invaders.

 

When the war began, Americans were confident that they would win. It become apparent the the U.S., however, was not prepared for war very quickly. Thomas Jefferson had made spending cuts that weakened the American military's strength during his presidency, and the American navy only had 16 warships ready for combat. The size of the American army was very small at only 7,000 men.

 

In the first days of the war, the British set up a blockade. A BLOCKADE is the action of shutting a port or road to prevent people or supplies from coming into an area or leaving it. By the year 1814, the British navy had 135 warships blockading American ports. After they reinforced their troops, the British closed off all American ports by the war's end.

 

**WHY WOULD CLOSED ACCESS TO PORTS BE BAD FOR THE AMERICANS??**

 

A major sea battle took place at the beginning of the war in August of 1812. The USS Constitution defeated the British warship, Guerriere, in a very fierce battle. The Constitution  ship was famously nicknamed "Old Ironsides" because British fire and cannons bounced off the ship's thick wooden hull.

 

War in the West and South

Meanwhile, Americans were continuing to fight the war with the British for control of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. Both sides had Native American allies.

 

Even before the war began, war hawks were demanding to invade Canada. They expected that the Canadians (who were controlled by the British) would want the chance to get rid of British rule.

 

In July of 1812, American troops invaded Canada from the city of Detroit. General William Hull, who led the troops, was unsure of himself and his soldiers and soon retreated from the battle. The British took advantage of this by surrounded Hull's army and forcing them to surrender. It was a very serious defeat for the U.S.

 

Americans had better luck, though, when it came to control of Lake Erie. Eventually the Americans defeated the British for control of this great lake.

 

Eventually, the Americans defeated the British and their Native American allies in Canada. However, the year 1814 would prove to be the key year that decided the outcome of the War of 1812.

 

Final Battles

 

 

In 1814, the British attacked the nation's capital of Washington D.C., setting fire to several government buildings, including the White House! The Americans were shocked- their armies could not defend the city of Washington D.C.

The British moved on to Baltimore in an attempt to take over an American army fort. The Americans, however, beat the attack and were victorious. A young man named Francis Scott Key witnessed this battle, which inspired him to write "The Star Spangled Banner", now used as our famous national anthem.

 

By 1814, Britain grew tired of war. Peace talks were taking place between the Americans and the British, and by Christmas Eve of 1814, the two sides signed a treaty to end the war. Things went back to the way they were before the war of 1812.

 

Because the treaty was signed overseas in Belgium, it took weeks for the Americans to learn of the end of the War of 1812. As a result, more battles were fought between the Americans and the British. The Americans proved victorious when they defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans.

 

Peace talks and protests followed the war's end. Several Americans disliked the fact that the war was drug on for two years too long, while others considered it "America's second independence." Either way, the War of 1812 gave the Americans confidence and unity. America was now allowed to continue expanding even further.