Geography: THE FOUR ZONES OF THE ANDES MOUNTAINS

This articel has been adapted from our classroom textbook, GEOGRAPHY ALIVE! Regions and People by Diane Hart.

 

We have learned that the Andes Mountains of South America are divided into four different altitudinal zones, which are shown in the diagram below:

Life in each zone is very different. Whether you are looking at human life, or plant life, or even how the air is different. The zones are all unique. Each article below highlights one of the four zones, providing details on physical characteristics, human adaptations, and overall, the unique differences between each zone.

 

TIERRA CALIENTE: "Hot Country"

Imagine you are a worker picking bananas on a plantation in Ecuador. The temperature is very high, so you must stop very frequently to wipe the sweat from your brow. You also must watch out for spiders, because tarantulas often hide within the banana stalks. A tarantula bite may not be deadly, but it is EXTREMELY painful.

This banana plantation is located in the tierra caliente. Consisting mostly of the tropical lowlands, its elevation zone lies at the bottom of the Andes Mountains on both the eastern and western sides. People who live in tierra caliente must adapt to a hot year-round climate.

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: The tierra caliente is the lowest of the four elevation zones in the Andes Mountains, extending from sea level to about 3,000 feet. The climate of this zone is generally hot and humid, with the average temperature ranging around 75 to 80 degrees.

Broadleaf evergreen forests cover the eastern slopes of the Andes Mountains heading into the Amazon River basin. On the western side of the Andes, the natural vegetation ranges from lush rainforests to tropical grasslands.

 

HUMAN ADAPTATIONS: The tropical heat of the tierra caliente can make it a very difficult place to live. As a result, the area is less populated than cooler, higher elevation zones. Some inhabitants are descended from the Africans who were brought by the Spanish to labor on large plantations as slaves. Indigenous peoples also live in some parts of the tropical rainforest.

People in this elevation zone have adapted to life within the tropics. Farmers plant crops that can do well in the heat, with some of the most common crops being bananas, rice, and sugarcane. People dress in light clothing, and they live in houses that are open to the cooling breezes. Their houses are often made of bamboo or wood, with palm-thatch roofs. Some homes are raised on stilts to provide protection against flooding.

 

TIERRA TEMPLADA: "Cool Country"

In the rolling hills of Ecuador's tierra templada, gardeners raise flowers, tending to long rows of carnations, daisies and roses. The flowers they grow will eventually be shipped to buyers thousands of miles away. In fact, many of the roses enjoyed by Americans on Valentine's Day come from Ecuador because the mild weather of Ecuador provides the perfect climate for cultivating and growing flowers.

 

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: The tierra templada is the second elevation zones of the Andes Mountains. It lies between 3,000 and 6,000 feet above sea level. At these elevations, the climate is temperate, with temperatures at around 65 to 75 degrees. There is rarely any frost. This pleasant weather lasts throughout the year, which is why people often call the tierra templada "The Land of Eternal Spring."

Vegetation changes with the elevation in this zone. At the lower elevations, tropical plants such as bamboo, palms, and jungle vines are quite common. At the higher elevations, broadleaf evergreen forests are typical.

 

HUMAN ADAPTATIONS: The mild climate in the tierra templada makes it a great place to live. Because of this, the tierra templada zone is more populated than the tierra caliente. Many of the people who live here are called MESTIZOS- which are a mixture of indigenous and European peoples. Europeans influences are common in the tierra templada.

Farmers in this zone choose their crops based on elevation. At lower levels, they grow heat-loving crops like bananas and oranges. The main crop of this zone is coffee, because the conditions of the tierra templada make it excellent for growing high-quality coffee beans. Most coffee beans are grown on small farms or plantations.

People who live in the tierra templada adapt their housing and their clothing to the comfortable climate. They live in solid homes made of concrete brick and are covered with tiled roofs. More wealthy residents may live in large homes called HACIENDAS.

 

TIERRA FRIA: "Cold Country"

A woman rises early in the highland city of Cuzco, Peru. This is tierra fria, and the morning air is very cold. The woman puts on a warm sweater and shawl and heads off to the market to buy food, walking down ancient stone streets that were built by her ancestors, the Incas. A light frost ont he stones makes them slippery, so she is careful. She is used to living life this way in the highlands.

 

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Tierra fria covers most of the Central Andes Mountains, with an elevation of about 6,000 to 12,000 feet above sea level. Average temperatures here vary from about 55 degrees to 65 degrees. Nights are always colder. The temperatures can often reach below freezing at higher elevations.

Mountains and valleys are the main characteristics of the tierra fria zone. The mountains are steep and rugged, but plateaus are also very common.

A high plateau called the Altiplano lies at an average elevation of 11,000 feet between Peru and Bolivia. This Plateau contains Lake Titicaca, one of the world's highest navigable lakes. This is lake that is large and deep enough for bigger boats.

Elevation also affects what can grow where: the tree line in this zone lies between 10,000 and 12,000 feet. The tree line is important because it marks the highest elevation at which trees will grow.

 

HUMAN ADAPTATIONS: Half of the population that lives here are indigenous peoples. The two main groups are the Quechua and the Aymara. Both of these groups were once a main part of the Incan Empire.

 

Over the centuries, native peoples have adapted to life at higher elevations. They wear warm woolen clothing to protect themselves from the cold. They also build thick-walled homes out of ADOBE brick. Their bodies have even adapted to high elevations, as they develop larger lungs that can draw more oxygen from the thin mountain air.

Farmers grow crops that do well at high elevations, including potatoes, wheat, barley, corn, apples and pears.

Another common practice within the Andes Mountains is vertical trade, which is the trading of farm products between higher and lower elevations. Since not all crops can be grown in both, this helps the different elevation zones receive necessary items that grow within the different zones. Through veritcal trade, people who live in one elevation zone have access to foods grown in other elevation zones.

 

TIERRA HELADA: "Frost Country"

Every year, Quechua Indians hike to a shrine in the mountains that is high above the city of Cuzco. They travel there to worship the APUS, which are "mountain gods." "We make offerings to the mountains," says one pilgrim, "asking them to send water for our crops and livestock."

The shrine above Cuzco is in the tierra helada, the highest elevation zone of the Andes Mountains. The pilgrims who make this journey have to be careful to walk slowly because the air is very thin. If people move too quickly at this high elevation, they may experience altitude sickness from a lack of oxygen. Altitude sickness can cause headaches, fatigue, shortness of breath, and nausea.

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: The tierra helada lies between 12,000 and 15,000 feet. Average temperatures vary between 20 degrees and 55 degrees. The tierra helada region is a very extreme environment. Climate is very cold and windy, it often freezes at night, and snow falls at higher elevations regularly. At the upper edge of this zone is the snow line, which is the elevation where permanent snow and ice begin. Above the snow line, snow remains on the ground year round.

 

HUMAN ADAPTATIONS: It is very challenging to live in the tierra helada region. This is why very few people live at these extreme elevations. Most of the people who live here are indigenous people, like the Quechua and Aymara. People have adapted to life in the tierra helada through various ways. Like in the tierra fria, they dress in warm clothing mostly year round. They plant the few crops that will grow at high elevations, which include a native grain called QUINOA and certain types of potatoes. They also reaise llamas and alpacas, two types of animals related to the camel. Llamas and alpacas produce thick wool for blankets, bags, and clothing. Llamas also make good pack animals for transporting heavly loads across the mountains.

 

 

Some people who live in this elevation zone work in mines because the high Andes have several large mineral deposits like lead, copper and silver. Working conditions in the mine are quite dangerous, but it does provide one of the few sources of income for residents of the tierra helada.

 

People generally do not live above the snow line, but it is an important area because of glaciers. Glaciers are large ice fields that store large amounts of fresh water. in the summer, water melts from the glaciers and eventually flows down to the people living at lower elevations. Streams that are fed by these glaciers form a crucial part of the water supply.

 

CONCLUSION:

 

The four zones are quite different and unique due to elevation, and depending on personal preference, each zone can and does provide a way of life for individuals seeking opportunity in the Andes Mountains. As time goes on and human adaptations continue, we may expect to see many changes taking place within this region of South America, as humans continually learn to adapt to this way of life and this territory of the earth. 

WORLD HISTORY: Looking at CULTURE during the Middle Ages

CULTURE DURING MEDIEVAL SOCIETY

This reading is adapted slightly from our textbook, "WORLD HISTORY" by Jackson J. Spielvogel, published by Glencoe.

 

Cathedrals

We know that during the Middle Ages, religion (particularly Christianity) greatly influenced society. Because Christians needed a place to meet for worship, Europe saw a great rise in churches and cathedrals being constructed across the continent. With a rise in church building, the middle ages saw great advancements in ARCHITECTURE-- especially during the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

 

The cathedrals that were constructed and built during medieval society were built ROMANESQUE style, which meant that they were built in the BASILICA shape used in the construction of church in the late Roman Empire. Basilicas were rectangular buildings that had flat, wooden roofs. Romanesque builders then placed a long, round stone arched vault on top of the wooden roof. Many times the vaults were in the shape of a cross so that the inside of the church could be shaped in that way.

 

The stone roofs were extremely heavy, which meant that Romanesque churches needed massive pillars and walls to hold them up. This mean that there was very little space left for windows in the church, leaving the insides of churches very dark inside.

 

A new style of building, called GOTHIC architecture, appeared later in the twelfth century and was developed even further in the thirteenth century. Gothic cathedrals still remain one of the greatest artistic accomplishments of the Middle Ages. There were two major innovations (or accomplishments):

 

INNOVATION #1:	INNOVATION #2:
Architects replaced the round barrel vaults of Romanesque churches with pointed arches… which allowed builders to make Gothic churches higher than Romanesque churches	The flying buttress was added to Gothic churches. This was a heavy, arched support of stone built onto the outside of church walls. Flying buttresses made it possible to distribute the weight of the church’s ceilings up and down

Gothic cathedrals also had stained glass windows added, which depicted both religious scenes and scenes from daily life. The colored glass also allowed for displays of colored light to enter into the cathedral through sunlight.

The St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague shows examples of Gothic architecture with the pointed arches extending into the sky. Below, you can see into the Cathedral where stained glass windows are present, paintings are drawn on the walls of the church, and the arches that show where the flying buttresses are located.

 

 

Universities

Universities are a direct product of the Middle Ages. The word university comes from the Latin word universitas which means "corporation."

 

The first European university appeared in Bologna, Italy. Students (only men) traveled from all over Europe to learn law. Later, the University of Paris became the first university in northern Europe. Many students AND masters (another word for teachers) left the University of Paris to start their own new university at Oxford, England, which is still in existence today. Kings, popes, and princes thought it was very honorable to help found and start universities. By the year 1500, there were more than 80 universities spread all across Europe.

 

Once students entered a university, they participated in studying a wide variety of topics, including:

-Grammar

-Logic

-Arithmetic

-Geometry

-Music

-Astronomy

 

One of the most highly valued subjects in universities was THEOLOGY- which is the study of religion and God. Theology was very strongly influenced by a system known as SCHOLASTICISM- which tried to bring together both faith and reason, showing that they can exist together.

 

One of the most famous men to attempt to bring faith and reason together was Thomas Aquinas.

 

Thomas Aquinas was a well known Christian author and priest who would ask challenging questions of his readers, such as "Does God really exist?"

 

Aquinas always questioned the relationship between reason and faith, which was very unheard of for these times. Although his ideas were not always accepted, he is now regarded as one of the most well known theological scholars of the Middle Ages.

 

Vernacular Literature

In Medieval society, Latin was the common language of civilization. It was used widely in the church and in schools, which later allowed people to communicate almost everywhere in Europe.

 

By the twelfth century, a new type of literature written in the VERNACULAR was started. Vernacular refers to the language of everyday speech in a particular region (such as Spanish in Spain, English in England, German in Germany, etc.). There were two popular forms of vernacular literature that appeared during the Middle Ages:

TROUBADOUR POETRY	CHANSON DE GESTE (Heroic Epic)
Mostly written about nobles and knights… Most poems were about a knight’s love for a lady, which inspires him to be as brave as possible and also a better poet	A heroic epic tells the story of knights and warriors usually traveling on a brave and courageous journey. They were very common to read during Medieval Society.

 

CONCLUSION

Today we learned that culture was very heavily influenced by three themes:

 

1. Architecture- the appearance of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals made a huge impact on advancements in Medieval Society, and showed the importance of the church during the middle ages.

 

2. Universities- Universities were a product of the Middle Ages and influenced studies in Theology, which looked at faith and reason.

 

3. Vernacular Literature- influenced by the development of individual languages, literature such as poetry and epics increased in popularity during Medieval Society.

 

 

 



Looking at relationships with other countries: Spain, Canada, and other European Nations

Dealing with Other Nations

This article is adapted from our classrooom textbook, AMERICA: History of our Nation by Davidson and Stoff (Prentice Hall). 

Key Terms and People for the reading:

-CEDED: to give up

-MIGUEL HIDALGO: a Mexican priest who organized an army of Native Americans in a revolt against Spain

-SIMON BOLIVAR: A leader best known for the struggle for independence from Spain

-JAMES MONROE: President during the Latin American conflicts

-JOHN QUINCY ADAMS: Secretary of State (like Monroe’s right hand man)

-SELF-GOVERNMENT: the right of people to rule themselves independently

By the year 1815, we had a new president (James Monroe) and were beginning to take firm positions in challenging European influences in both North and South America.

Relations with Spain

At the time of the War of 1812, the United States and Haiti were the only parts of the Americas that were not under European control. Spain controlled more territory in the Americas than any other European country, however, Spain’s power greatly weakened over the course of several hundred years.

Spain’s control was especially weak in Florida (not yet a part of the U.S.). Spain was having trouble stopping enslaved African Americans from escaping plantations in both Georgia and Alabama and crossing into Florida. Once they arrived in Florida, many of the escaped slaves joined the Seminole Nation (a group of Native Americans) who often crossed over into the United States to raid different American settlements.

In 1817, the U.S. government sent Andrew Jackson to recapture the African Americans who had escaped slavery. Jackson attacked and destroyed Seminole villages and went far beyond his orders. He seized two very important Spanish towns in Florida and forced the governor of Florida to flee the territory.

By attacking Florida, Jackson showed not only that the U.S. could take over Florida, but also that Spain could not protect it. Because of these two factors, Spain decided to give up the territory in the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819. Spain therefore ceded Florida to the United States.

Spanish Colonies Win Independence

While the U.S. successfully gained control over Florida from Spain, opposition to Spanish rule was growing in Spain’s American colonies. The American Revolution had inspired Latin Americans to want control over their own affairs (Spain had controlled many Latin American territories up to this point). Spain seemed to be unable to control the pressure for change in Latin America as more colonies were starting revolutionary movements.

The picture above shows territories controlled by Spain during the 1800’s prior to the Louisiana Purchase.

One of the most famous examples of Revolution against Spain is Mexico. The struggle for Mexican independence began in 1810 with Father Michael Hidalgo organizing an army of Native Americans that freed several Mexican provinces (territories). In 1811, Hidalgo was captured and executed by troops loyal to Spain.

Another Revolution broke out in Mexico in 1820. Spain was unable to end the fighting this time around, and they agreed to Mexico’s independence in 1821.

Mexico was ruled by an emperor first, but eventually, in 1823, the monarchy was overthrown. A new constitution was written for Mexico (they borrowed many ideas from the U.S. constitution) and eventually, Mexico was made into a republic consisting of nineteen states and four territories.

South and Central America Independence

South America was another region affected by revolutionary changes. One of the most well-known leaders of the struggle for independence from Spain in South America was Simon Bolivar. His nickname, “The Liberator”, refers to his role in leading independence movements in the northern part of South America. In August of 1819, he led an army from Venezuela into Colombia, where he defeated the Spanish and became the president of the territory of Colombia. His territory included other nations such as Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama (all formerly controlled by Spain).

In the north of Central America, citizens declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Two year later, they formed the United Provinces of Central America which included Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala.

By 1822, Brazil announced its independence from the nation of Portugal. Eventually by 1825, most parts of Latin America had thrown off European rule.

The Monroe Doctrine

Spain and other European nations were very upset over losing control of Latin American countries. Many European countries such as France and Russia began to declare that they might help Spain try to regain control of its former territories.

 

^^James Monroe is pictured on top, while John Quincy Adams is pictured on the bottom^^

This worried President James Monroe and his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. The British also grew worried, because both nations wanted to protect trade with Latin American countries. In 1823, Britain suggested that the two countries should issue a joint statement together, announcing their pledge to protect the freedom of the new nations of Latin America. Adams informed Monroe that issuing a joint statement with the British would make the U.S. look like a “junior partner” to other nations… So Monroe issued a statement alone.

James Monroe issued what is called the Monroe Doctrine in December of 1823. The Monroe Doctrine stated that the U.S. would not allow European nations to create American colonies or interfere with the now-free nations of Latin America. The United States would consider any attempt to do so “dangerous to our peace and safety.”

The Monroe Doctrine boosted the influence of the United States in the region and gave fair warning to European nations against reestablishing colonies in Latin America. Gradually, the U.S. was establishing itself as an even greater power and nation.

Relations with Canada

Canada was still a British colony after the American Revolution, and was now divided into two parts. Upper Canada was mainly British, while Lower Canada was mainly French. In the mid-1800’s, there were rebellions against the British in both parts of Canada.

Even though the British succeeded and maintained control after both rebellions, they learned an important lesson: They could no longer deny rights to Canadians. Britain would have to give Canadians more powers of self-government… and the Act of Union of 1841 was a large step in that direction. It joined the two parts of Canada together, and established a joint Canadian government, although Britain still had the ultimate control over the nation.

The relationship between the U.S. and Canada and Canada was still tense… particularly because the U.S. unsuccessfully tried to invade Canada in the War of 1812.

Slowly, the situation between the two improved after the war. Canada and the U.S. eventually established excellent relations with one another because the U.S. and Britain worked hard to settle land disputes after the war. The relationship between the two still remains strong to this day.

Conclusion

The Monroe Doctrine convinced Americans that U.S. southern borders were safe from European expansion. Treaties with Britain lessened the tensions with Canada, and with a new sense of confidence, Americans were on their way to making even more progress in expanding and developing the nation.

The War of 1812

This article is adapted from our classrooom textbook, AMERICA: History of our Nation by Davidson and Stoff (Prentice Hall). 

Previously, we learned about how Thomas Jefferson hoped to avoid war with the French by negotiating the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. By the year 1809, James Madison had been elected President of the United States and tensions had once again become high with another country... this time, GREAT BRITAIN.

The Americans were angry at Britain for arming Native Americans in the Northwestern parts of the country. In addition, American sailors were being imprisoned by the British overseas, which furthur upset citizens back home.

Most American's felt that the country's honor was in jeapordy and began to feel a new sense of American NATIONALISM- which means to have pride in one's country. In the year 1810, two strong American nationalist's, Henry Clay (from Kentucky) and John C. Calhoun (from South Carolina) became leaders in the House of Representatives.

Henry Clay, one of the War Hawks

Clay and Calhoun and their supporters were called WAR HAWKS- those who were eager for a war with Britain. New England had the strongest opposition to war. They felt that going to war with the British would harm American trade.

Relationships with the British got worse by the year 1812. In the spring, the British told the U.S. that they would continue to imprison sailors, and Native Americans in the Northwest (who, remember, got their weapons from the British), were attacking new settlements. In June of 1812, Congress declared war on Great Britain.

Early Days of the War

The British were already at war in Europe, so the War of 1812 did not come at a good time. Still, the British were not willing to meet American demands for avoiding war. Providing Native Americans with support helped the British to protect Canada from American invaders.

 

When the war began, Americans were confident that they would win. It become apparent the the U.S., however, was not prepared for war very quickly. Thomas Jefferson had made spending cuts that weakened the American military's strength during his presidency, and the American navy only had 16 warships ready for combat. The size of the American army was very small at only 7,000 men.

 

In the first days of the war, the British set up a blockade. A BLOCKADE is the action of shutting a port or road to prevent people or supplies from coming into an area or leaving it. By the year 1814, the British navy had 135 warships blockading American ports. After they reinforced their troops, the British closed off all American ports by the war's end.

 

**WHY WOULD CLOSED ACCESS TO PORTS BE BAD FOR THE AMERICANS??**

 

A major sea battle took place at the beginning of the war in August of 1812. The USS Constitution defeated the British warship, Guerriere, in a very fierce battle. The Constitution  ship was famously nicknamed "Old Ironsides" because British fire and cannons bounced off the ship's thick wooden hull.

 

War in the West and South

Meanwhile, Americans were continuing to fight the war with the British for control of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. Both sides had Native American allies.

 

Even before the war began, war hawks were demanding to invade Canada. They expected that the Canadians (who were controlled by the British) would want the chance to get rid of British rule.

 

In July of 1812, American troops invaded Canada from the city of Detroit. General William Hull, who led the troops, was unsure of himself and his soldiers and soon retreated from the battle. The British took advantage of this by surrounded Hull's army and forcing them to surrender. It was a very serious defeat for the U.S.

 

Americans had better luck, though, when it came to control of Lake Erie. Eventually the Americans defeated the British for control of this great lake.

 

Eventually, the Americans defeated the British and their Native American allies in Canada. However, the year 1814 would prove to be the key year that decided the outcome of the War of 1812.

 

Final Battles

 

 

In 1814, the British attacked the nation's capital of Washington D.C., setting fire to several government buildings, including the White House! The Americans were shocked- their armies could not defend the city of Washington D.C.

The British moved on to Baltimore in an attempt to take over an American army fort. The Americans, however, beat the attack and were victorious. A young man named Francis Scott Key witnessed this battle, which inspired him to write "The Star Spangled Banner", now used as our famous national anthem.

 

By 1814, Britain grew tired of war. Peace talks were taking place between the Americans and the British, and by Christmas Eve of 1814, the two sides signed a treaty to end the war. Things went back to the way they were before the war of 1812.

 

Because the treaty was signed overseas in Belgium, it took weeks for the Americans to learn of the end of the War of 1812. As a result, more battles were fought between the Americans and the British. The Americans proved victorious when they defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans.

 

Peace talks and protests followed the war's end. Several Americans disliked the fact that the war was drug on for two years too long, while others considered it "America's second independence." Either way, the War of 1812 gave the Americans confidence and unity. America was now allowed to continue expanding even further.