The Revolutions of 1848

This reading is adapted from our textbook, "WORLD HISTORY" by Jackson J. Spievogel and published by Glencoe.

Beginning in France in 1848, the spirit of revolution spread quickly over Europe, but the uprisings were largely suppressed. Can you imagine living without the rights guaranteed in the Constitution? In 1848, popular uprisings in Europe hoped to win such rights.

The conservative order still dominated much of Europe as the midpoint of the nineteenth century approached. However, the forces of liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. These forces of change erupted once more in the revolutions of 1848.

ANOTHER FRENCH REVOLUTION

Revolution in France once agains sparked revolution in other countries. Major economic problems beginning in the year 1846 brought hardships in France to the lower-middle class, workers, and peasants.

At the same time, members of the middle class were fighting for the right to vote. The government of the king of France (Louis Philippe) refused to make changes. Opposition to the government grew as a result.

The monarchy was finally overthrown in 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans set up a provisional (which means "temporary") government. The republicans were people who wished France to be a republic- which is a government where leaders are elected.

The provisional government called for the election of representatives to a assembly that would create a new constitution. Elections were to be decided by universal male suffrage- which meant that all adult men could vote.

The provisional government also set up national workshops to provide work for the unemployed. From March to June, the number of unemployed enrolled int he national workshops rose from about 66,000 to almost 120,000. This emptied the treasury and frightened the moderates, who reacted by closing the workshops on June 21.

The workers refused to accept the decision to close the workshops and responded by pouring into the streets. In four days of bitter and bloody fighting, government forces crushed the working-class revolt. Thousands were killed and thousands more were sent to the French prison colony of Algeria (in northern Africa).

The new constitution, which was ratified on November 4th, 1848, set up a republic called the Second Republic. The Second Republic had a single legislature elected by universale male suffrage. A president, also chosen by universal male suffrage, served for four years (just like how the presidency works here in the U.S.!). In December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (called Louis-Napoleon), the nephew of the famous French ruler, won a resouding victory for France.

TROUBLE IN THE GERMAN STATES

News of the 1848 revolution in France led to upheaval in other parts of Europe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 had recognized the existence of 38 independent German states (which was called the German confederation). Of these, Austria and Prussia were the two greatest powers. The other states varied in their sizes.


In 1848, cries for change led many German rulers to promise constitutions, a free press, jury trials, and other liberal reforms. In May of 1848, an all-German meeting took place to fulfill both liberal and nationalist dreams- the preparation of a constitution for a new united Germany. This meeting, which was called the Frankfurt assembly, provided the German states with a parliamentary government with an emperor that ruled with limited power. The constitution also allowed for direct election of deputies to the parliament by universal male suffrage.
Ultimately, however, the Frankfurt Assembly did not gain the support needed to achieve the goals listed above. Unifying German states together was not achieved.


 REVOLUTIONS IN CENTRAL EUROPE

The Austrian Empire also had problems during this time .The empire was a multinational state- meaning different peoples including Germans, Czechs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Italians, and Romanians (just to name a few). Only the German-speakers kept the empire together... but the German population only made up about 1/4 of the total population of the Austrian Empire.

In March 1848, demonstrations erupted in the major cities. To calm the demonstrators, a major court called the Hapsburg court, dismissed the Austrian foreign minister (which is a major leader). In the city of Vienna, Austria, revolutionary forces took control of the capital and demanded a constitution. To please the revolutionaries, the government gave certain countries their own legislature.

Austrian officials were determined to take back control of the empire. In June 1848, Austrian military forces crushed rebels from the Czech republic in Prague. By the end of October, the rebels had been defeated as well. With the help of a large Russian army, the revolutions finally ended in 1849. The revolutions in the Austrian Empire had failed.

CONCLUSION
Throughout Europe in 1848, popular revolts started upheavals that had led to liberal constitutions and liberal governments. However, moderate liberals and more radical revolutionaries were soon divided over their goals, and so conservative rule was reestablished. Even with the reestablishment of conservative governments, however, the forces of nationalism and liberalism continued to influence political events. 

World History 11/15/13: Taking a look at CULTURE during the MIDDLE AGES

CULTURE DURING MEDIEVAL SOCIETY

This reading is adapted slightly from our textbook, "WORLD HISTORY" by Jackson J. Spielvogel, published by Glencoe.

Cathedrals

We know that during the Middle Ages, religion (particularly Christianity) greatly influenced society. Because Christians needed a place to meet for worship, Europe saw a great rise in churches and cathedrals being constructed across the continent. With a rise in church building, the middle ages saw great advancements in ARCHITECTURE-- especially during the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

The cathedrals that were constructed and built during medieval society were built ROMANESQUE style, which meant that they were built in the BASILICA shape used in the construction of church in the late Roman Empire. Basilicas were rectangular buildings that had flat, wooden roofs. Romanesque builders then placed a long, round stone arched vault on top of the wooden roof. Many times the vaults were in the shape of a cross so that the inside of the church could be shaped in that way.

The stone roofs were extremely heavy, which meant that Romanesque churches needed massive pillars and walls to hold them up. This mean that there was very little space left for windows in the church, leaving the insides of churches very dark inside.

A new style of building, called GOTHIC architecture, appeared later in the twelfth century and was developed even further in the thirteenth century. Gothic cathedrals still remain one of the greatest artistic accomplishments of the Middle Ages. There were two major innovations (or accomplishments):

INNOVATION #1:	INNOVATION #2:
Architects replaced the round barrel vaults of Romanesque churches with pointed arches… which allowed builders to make Gothic churches higher than Romanesque churches	The flying buttress was added to Gothic churches. This was a heavy, arched support of stone built onto the outside of church walls. Flying buttresses made it possible to distribute the weight of the church’s ceilings up and down

Gothic cathedrals also had stained glass windows added, which depicted both religious scenes and scenes from daily life. The colored glass also allowed for displays of colored light to enter into the cathedral through sunlight.

The St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague shows examples of Gothic architecture with the pointed arches extending into the sky. Below, you can see into the Cathedral where stained glass windows are present, paintings are drawn on the walls of the church, and the arches that show where the flying buttresses are located.

Universities

Universities are a direct product of the Middle Ages. The word university comes from the Latin word universitas which means "corporation."

The first European university appeared in Bologna, Italy. Students (only men) traveled from all over Europe to learn law. Later, the University of Paris became the first university in northern Europe. Many students AND masters (another word for teachers) left the University of Paris to start their own new university at Oxford, England, which is still in existence today. Kings, popes, and princes thought it was very honorable to help found and start universities. By the year 1500, there were more than 80 universities spread all across Europe.

Once students entered a university, they participated in studying a wide variety of topics, including:

-Grammar

-Logic

-Arithmetic

-Geometry

-Music

-Astronomy

One of the most highly valued subjects in universities was THEOLOGY- which is the study of religion and God. Theology was very strongly influenced by a system known as SCHOLASTICISM- which tried to bring together both faith and reason, showing that they can exist together.

One of the most famous men to attempt to bring faith and reason together was Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas was a well known Christian author and priest who would ask challenging questions of his readers, such as "Does God really exist?"

Aquinas always questioned the relationship between reason and faith, which was very unheard of for these times. Although his ideas were not always accepted, he is now regarded as one of the most well known theological scholars of the Middle Ages.

Vernacular Literature

In Medieval society, Latin was the common language of civilization. It was used widely in the church and in schools, which later allowed people to communicate almost everywhere in Europe.

By the twelfth century, a new type of literature written in the VERNACULAR was started. Vernacular refers to the language of everyday speech in a particular region (such as Spanish in Spain, English in England, German in Germany, etc.). There were two popular forms of vernacular literature that appeared during the Middle Ages:

TROUBADOUR POETRY	CHANSON DE GESTE (Heroic Epic)
Mostly written about nobles and knights… Most poems were about a knight’s love for a lady, which inspires him to be as brave as possible and also a better poet	A heroic epic tells the story of knights and warriors usually traveling on a brave and courageous journey. They were very common to read during Medieval Society.

CONCLUSION

Today we learned that culture was very heavily influenced by three themes:

1. Architecture- the appearance of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals made a huge impact on advancements in Medieval Society, and showed the importance of the church during the middle ages.

2. Universities- Universities were a product of the Middle Ages and influenced studies in Theology, which looked at faith and reason.

3. Vernacular Literature- influenced by the development of individual languages, literature such as poetry and epics increased in popularity during Medieval Society.

Founders Facebook Template Download

Click on the link below to download the Facebook template:

http://www.whiteville.k12.nc.us/groups/kevinchaisson/wiki/4c794/

Click on "Facebook Sample Page" and download to your desktop. It will appear in Powerpoint Format. 

Bush, 9/11, and Canada

Bush and 9/11

Republican George W. Bush, son of the first President Bush, won the presidency in 2000. The new president soon found most of his attention directed toward the problem of terrorism. Terrorists directed by Osama bin Laden hijacked four commerical jets in Boston, Newark, and Washington D.C. The hijackers flew two of the ariplanes directly into the World Trade Center towers in New York City. A third hijacked plane slammed into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. The fourth plane crashed into an isolated field in Pennsylvania. In all, almost 3,000 people were killed that day.

 

 

 

After the attacks of September 11, President George W. Bush vowed to fight terrorism. In October 2001, he led a coalition of countries in a war against the Taliban in Afghanistan. The Taliban is a militant Islamic group that controlled Afghanistan and allowed Osama bin Laden to train his al-Qaeda terrorists there. After the defeat of the Taliban, the United States and its allies worked with Afghan leaders to create a new government.

 

 

In November 2004, Bush was narrowly elected to a second term as president. Four years later, however, his popularity plummeted due to growing discontent over the Iraq War, dramatic increases in oil and gas prices, and a significant downturn in the economy caused in part by the problems in the home mortgage industry.



The Disintegration of Yugoslavia

Adapted from our textbook: WORLD HISTORY by Spielvogel
MAIN IDEA: Ethnic tensions led to armed conflict in Yugoslavia.


Yugoslavia had a Communist government but was never a Soviet satellite state. By 1990, however, the Communist Party collapsed. The Yugoslav political scene was complex. Slobodan Milosevic, leader of Serbia, rejected efforts toward independence. In Milosevic's view, the republics' borders first needed to be redrawn to form a new Greater Serbian state. When negotiations failed, Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence in June 1991. In September 1991, the Yugoslav army assaulted Croatia. Increasingly, Serbia, aided by Croation Serbs, dominated the Yugoslav army. Serbian forces captured one-third of Croatia's territory before a cease-fire ended the conflict.

Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo

The Serbs next attacked Bosnia-Herzegovina and acquired 70 percent of Bosnian territory. Many Bosnians were Muslims. The Serbs followed a policy called ethnic cleansing toward Bosnians-- killing or forcibly removing them from their lands. Ethnic cleansing revived memories of the Nazis and their horrors from World War II.

With support from NATO air attacks, Bosnian and Croation forces regained considerable territory lost to Serbian forces. The Serbs signed a formal peace treaty that split Bosnia into a Serb republic and a Muslim-Croat federation. In 2008, former Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic was arrested for war crimes.

A new war erupted in 1998 over Kosovo, an autonomus (or self-governing) province within Yugoslavia. After Slobodan Milosevic stripped Kosovo of its autonomy in 1989, grousp of ethnic Albanians founded the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and began a campaign against Serbian rule. To crush the KLA, Serb fordces massacred ethnic Albanians. The United States and NATO allies worked on a settlement that would end the killing. The Albanians in Kosovo regained their autonomy in 1999. Milosevic's rule ended in 2000. While on trial for his role in the massacre of Kosovo civilians, Milosevic died in 2006.

Yugoslavia ceased to exist in 2004 when the government officially renamed the country Serbia and Montenegro. The people of Montenegro voted for independence in 2006. Thus, all six republics that formed Yugoslavia in 1918 were once again independent nations.

When you are finished reading, click on THIS LINK to be directed to your next article

Shaping the Peace after World War I

With the end of the war, the struggle began to determine how to shape the peace. Wilson's ideas for the postwar world found opponents both abroad and at home.

THE FOURTEEN POINTS

Even before the war ended, President Wilson had presented his peace plan, known as the Fourteen Points, to Congress. He framed his plan in idealistic terms, saying he hoped to prevent future wars. The first five points dealt with the factors that led to the war. Wilson wanted to eliminate secret international agreements. He called for freedom of the seas, free trade among nations, and a sharp reduction to the world's military forces. 

Points 6 thru 13 dealt with specific territorial issues arising from the war. Wilson wanted to turn a specific point from this section into a call for self-determination. Self-determination is the right of a group to decide its own form of government. Wilson knew that one of the causes of World War I was the struggle of different nations to rule themselves. He hoped self-determination would help to end that struggle.

For President Wilson, Point #14 was the most important. It called for setting up an international organization of nations to guarantee world peace. Wilson hoped this would help all nations to cooperate with one another, avoiding another war like World War I.

Click on the link below and write down two of President Wilson's points for the Fourteen Point Plan:

http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1324.html

PEACE CONFERENCE IN PARIS

The victorious allies organized a peace conference in Paris after the war. 

Click on the link below to learn more about the peace conference:

http://history1900s.about.com/od/worldwari/p/Versailles-Treaty.htm

(Make sure you scroll through all three pages of information)

One of the most important parts of the Peace Conference was the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. This treaty forced Germany to accept full responsibility for the war and to pay the Allies huge reparations. Reparations are payments to cover war damages. It also limited Germany's size and military.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Once he returned to the U.S., President Wilson urged the Senate to adopt the Treaty of Versailles. President Wilson backed the treaty's most controversial part- creating the League of Nations. The United States would use the League of Nations (which was the organization of nations Wilson had proposed in his Fourteen Points) to lead the world onto a new path.

Many Senators opposed the treaty. Leading the opposition was Henry Cabot Lodge, a powerful Republican from Massachusetts. Lodge's main objection was the proposal of the United States to join the League of Nations.
Lodge argued that membership in the League would restrict the right of the United States to act independently in its own interest.

Lodge asked for major changes that would reduce the United States ties to the League, but President Wilson refused to compromise.

Look at the political cartoon below, and explain what you think the cartoon means:

WILSON'S LAST BATTLE
In early September, Wilson set out on a nationwide tour to stir up public support for the League of Nations. Traveling 8,000 miles by train in three weeks, he gave 40 speeches across the country.

On October 2, Wilson suffered a massive stroke that paralyzed his left side. His wife and physician kept his illness a secret. From the White House sickbed, Wilson continued to reject all compromise on the treaty.
In November 1919, the Senate voted to reject the treaty. The United States would no longer be part of the League of Nations. This led to the League of Nations being very unable to settle the issues left behind from World War I.

POSTWAR TROUBLES
The United States did not easily adjust to the return of peace. The postwar years brought a variety of troubles.

INFLUENZA EPIDEMIC	Toward the end of the war, troop movements contributed to a worldwide influenza epidemic. In the United States alone, the disease took more than 500,000 lives in 1918 and 1919. Worldwide, the epidemic killed more people than had died all four years of the war.
LABOR UNREST	During the war, unions and businesses had cooperated to meet production goals needed for the war. But peacetime brought high unemployment, as soldiers came home to seek jobs. With prices rising, unions demanded for higher wages, but they were not given what they wanted. In 1919, four million laborers, 20 percent of the American workforce, went on strike.
RED SCARE	Many Americans feared that Communists, or “Reds” were behind the labor unrest. After all, in Russia, Lenin had called for a worldwide workers’ revolution. From 1919 to 1920 a “Red  Scare,” or fear of Communist revolution, gripped the nation.   Many immigrants in America suspected of being communist were deported, or returned to their home countries.

 

Culture Changes in Europe: Art, Literature, Music, and Architecture

Culture was changing in Europe during the late 1800s. Innovations in literature, visual arts, and music helped others to develop new worldviews. Between 1870 and 1914, many writers and artists rebelled against the traditional styles of art that had been around since the Renaissance. These changes contributed to a movement known as MODERNISM.

LITERATURE:

-Western novelists and poets who followed the “naturalist” style felt literature should be realistic and address social problems

-Two writers, Henrik Ibsen and Emile Zola, explored the role of women in society, alcoholism, and the problems of urban slums in their work

 

-Symbolist writers had a different idea about what was real. They were inspired by psychologist Sigmund Freud, believing that the external world, including art, was a collection of symbols reflecting the human mind. Art, the symbolists believed, should not be used to criticize or seek to understand society

 

PAINTING, ART, ARCHITECTURE, and MUSIC
The table below gives specific examples of artists and people who made advances in the categories above. Fill out your worksheet and make sure you follow instructions on what to do with Google at the end of each section:

CLAUDE MONET	Best known for being: an impressionist artist   - Impressionism was a movement that began in France in the 1870s, when a group of artists rejected traditional indoor studios and went to the countryside to pain nature directly.   -Monet’s paintings aimed to capture light, water, and sky   Google the following paintings, and describe them in your worksheet:   -Impression Sunrise by Claude Monet -Women in the Garden by Claude Monet   -San Giorgio Maggiore at Dusk by Claude Monet
VINCENT VAN GOGH	Best known for being: a postimpressionist artist   -Postimpressionism was mostly used to express a mood and spirituality   -Van Gogh was especially interested in color and believed it could be its own language   -Felt “artists should paint what they feel”   Google the following paintings, and describe them in your worksheet:   -The Starry Night by Vincent Van Gogh   -Starry Night over the Rhone by Vincent Van Gogh   -The Potato Eaters by Vincent Van Gogh
PABLO PICASSO	Best known for being: a modern artist   -Picasso was from Spain and eventually moved to Paris to start painting in a variety of styles   -Picasso created his own artistic style called cubism- which used geometric designs to re-create reality   -Picasso is described as being influenced by Albert Einstein   Google the following paintings, and describe them in your worksheet:   -Plaster Head and Arm by Pablo Picasso   -Dora Maar by Pablo Picasso
Wassily Kandinsky	Best known for being: an abstract painter   -Kandinsky was a Russian and was one of the first artists to use abstract styles   -He wanted to avoid visual reality altogether   -Kandinsky believed paintings should only contain lines and color   Google the following paintings and describe them in your worksheet:   -Yellow Red Blue by Wassily Kandinsky   -Composition IV by Wassily Kandinsky   -Sketch for Composition II by Wassily Kandinsky
Frank Lloyd Wright	Best known for being: a modern architect   -Wright believed buildings should be functional, or easy to use. He built a series of American homes with long geometric lines and overhanging roofs   -Wright was influenced by the idea that extra ornaments and decorations on homes and buildings should be done away with   Google the following house built by Frank Lloyd Wright and describe them in your worksheet:   -Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, IL
Igor Stravinsky	Best known for being: a Russian composer of music   -Stravinsky used new expressive sounds and bold rhythms in his music   -His most famous work was called “The Rite of Spring.” When it debuted in Paris in 1913, the sounds and rhythms of the music and dance caused a near riot by an outraged audience